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Transformer

This article is about the electrical device. For the media and toy franchise, see Transformers. For other uses, see Transformer (disambiguation).

Pole-mounted distribution transformer with center-tappedsecondary winding used to provide "split-phase" power for residential and light commercial service, which in North America is typically rated 120/240 V.^[1][2]

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic field, which in turn induces a varyingelectromotive force (emf) or "voltage" in a second coil. Power can be transferred between the two coils through the magnetic field, without a metallic connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of inductiondiscovered in 1831 described this effect. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications.

Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers have become essential for the transmission,distribution, and utilization of alternating current electrical energy.^[3] A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RFtransformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons.

PrinciplesEdit

Ideal transformer equations (eq.)

By Faraday's law of induction:

${\displaystyle V_{\text{S}}=-N_{\text{S}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} \Phi }{\mathrm {d} t}}}$ . . . (1)^[a]

${\displaystyle V_{\text{P}}=-N_{\text{P}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} \Phi }{\mathrm {d} t}}}$ . . . (2)

Combining ratio of (1) & (2)

Turns ratio ${\displaystyle ={\frac {V_{\text{P}}}{V_{\text{S}}}}={\frac {-N_{\text{P}}}{-N_{\text{S}}}}=a}$ . . . (3) where

for step-down transformers, a > 1

for step-up transformers, a < 1

By law of conservation of energy,apparent, real and reactive power are each conserved in the input and output

${\displaystyle S=I_{\text{P}}V_{\text{P}}=I_{\text{S}}V_{\text{S}}}$ . . . (4)

Combining (3) & (4) with this endnote^[b][4]yields the ideal transformer identity

${\displaystyle {\frac {V_{\text{P}}}{V_{\text{S}}}}={\frac {I_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{P}}}}={\frac {N_{\text{P}}}{N_{\text{S}}}}={\sqrt {\frac {L_{\text{P}}}{L_{\text{S}}}}}=a}$ . (5)

By Ohm's law and ideal transformer identity

${\displaystyle Z_{\text{L}}={\frac {V_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{S}}}}}$ . . . (6)

Apparent load impedance Z'_L (Z_L referred to the primary)

${\displaystyle Z'_{\text{L}}={\frac {V_{\text{P}}}{I_{\text{P}}}}={\frac {aV_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{S}}/a}}=a^{2}{\frac {V_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{S}}}}=a^{2}{Z_{\text{L}}}}$ . (7)

Ideal transformerEdit

Referring to the two schematic models pictured below, an ideal transformer is a theoretical, linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled.^[5] Perfect coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding inductances and zero net magnetomotive force.^[6][c]

 

Ideal transformer connected with source V_P on primary and load impedance Z_L on secondary, where 0 < Z_L < ∞.

 

Ideal transformer and induction law^[d]

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a varying EMF or voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction. The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around a core of infinitely high magnetic permeability^[e] so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings. With avoltage source connected to the primary winding and load impedance connected to the secondary winding, the transformer currents flow in the indicated directions. (See alsoPolarity.)

According to Faraday's law, since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer,^[8] a voltage is induced in each winding, according to eq. (1) in the secondary winding case, according to eq. (2) in the primary winding case.^[9] The primary EMF is sometimes termed counter EMF.^[10][11][f] This is in accordance with Lenz's law, which states that induction of EMF always opposes development of any such change in magnetic field.

The transformer winding voltage ratio is thus shown to be directly proportional to the winding turns ratio according to eq. (3).^[12][13][g] common usage having evolved over time from 'turn ratio' to 'turns ratio'. However, some sources use the inverse definition.^[14][h]

According to the law of conservation of energy, any load impedance connected to the ideal transformer's secondary winding results in conservation of apparent, real and reactive power consistent with eq. (4).

The ideal transformer identity shown in eq. (5) is a reasonable approximation for the typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both being inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio.

By Ohm's law and the ideal transformer identity:

• the secondary circuit load impedance can be expressed as eq. (6)
• the apparent load impedance referred to the primary circuit is derived in eq. (7) to be equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load impedance.^[15][16]

Real transformerEdit

 

Leakage flux of a transformer

Deviations from ideal transformerEdit

The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear aspects in real transformers:

(a) Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consisting of^[17]

• Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear application of the voltage applied in the transformer core, and
• Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional to the square of the transformer's applied voltage.

(b) Unlike the ideal model, the windings in a real transformer have non-zero resistances and inductances associated with:

• Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings^[17]
• Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one winding only resulting in primary and secondary reactive impedance.

 

An illustration of parasitic capacitance in a transformer.

(c) similar to an inductor, parasitic capacitance and self-resonance phenomenon due to the electric field distribution. Three kinds of parasitic capacitance are usually considered and the closed-loop equations are provided ^[18]

• Capacitance between adjacent turns in any one layer;
• Capacitance between adjacent layers;
• Capacitance between the core and the layer(s) adjacent to the core;

The transformer model with capacitance is quite complicated, and is rarely attempted; even the ‘real’ transformer model’s equivalent circuit does not include the parasitic capacitance. However, the capacitance can be measured by comparing open-circuit inductance to a short-circuit inductance.^{[further explanation needed]}

 

Leakage fluxEdit

Main article: Leakage inductance

The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings.^[19] Such flux is termedleakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings.^[11] Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power loss, but results in inferiorvoltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy load.^[19] Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance.

In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit theshort-circuit current it will supply.^[11] Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such aselectric arcs, mercury- and sodium- vapor lamps and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.^[20]

Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a DC component flowing in the windings.^[21] A now-obsolete form of transformer called asaturable reactor exploits saturation of the core by DC-current in order to block the transformer action, thereby controlling the flow of AC current through the transformer.

Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the percent impedance^[i] and associated winding leakage reactance-to-resistance (X/R) ratio of two transformers were hypothetically exactly the same, the transformers would share power in proportion to their respective volt-ampere ratings (e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1,000 kVA unit, the larger unit would carry twice the current). However, the impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant. Also, the Z impedance and X/R ratio of different capacity transformers tends to vary, corresponding 1,000 kVA and 500 kVA units' values being, to illustrate, respectively, Z≈ 5.75%, X/R ≈ 3.75 and Z ≈ 5%, X/R ≈ 4.75.^[23]

Equivalent circuitEdit

See also: Steinmetz equivalent circuit

Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical behavior may be represented by an equivalent circuit model, which can incorporate an ideal transformer.^[24]

Winding joule losses and leakage reactances are represented by the following series loop impedances of the model:

• Primary winding: R_P, X_P
• Secondary winding: R_S, X_S.

In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation, R_S and X_S are in practice usually referred to the primary side by multiplying these impedances by the turns ratio squared, (N_P/N_S) ² = a².

 

Real transformer equivalent circuit

Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg impedances of the model:

• Core or iron losses: R_C
• Magnetizing reactance: X_M.

R_C and X_M are collectively termed themagnetizing branch of the model.

Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core and are proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given frequency.^[25] The finite permeability core requires a magnetizing current I_M to maintain mutual flux in the core. Magnetizing current is in phase with the flux, the relationship between the two being non-linear due to saturation effects. However, all impedances of the equivalent circuit shown are by definition linear and such non-linearity effects are not typically reflected in transformer equivalent circuits.^[25] Withsinusoidal supply, core flux lags the induced EMF by 90°. With open-circuited secondary winding, magnetizing branch current I₀ equals transformer no-load current.^[24]

 

Instrument transformer, with polarity dot and X1 markings on LV side terminal

The resulting model, though sometimes termed 'exact' equivalent circuit based onlinearity assumptions, retains a number of approximations.^[24] Analysis may be simplified by assuming that magnetizing branch impedance is relatively high and relocating the branch to the left of the primary impedances. This introduces error but allows combination of primary and referred secondary resistances and reactances by simple summation as two series impedances.

Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and transformer ratio parameters can be derived from the following tests: open-circuit test,^[j]short-circuit test, winding resistance test, and transformer ratio test.

Transformer EMF equationEdit

If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding between itsrms voltage E_rms of the winding, and the supply frequency f, number of turns N, core cross-sectional area a in m² and peak magnetic flux density B_peak in Wb/m² or T (tesla) is given by the universal EMF equation:^[17][27]

${\displaystyle E_{\text{rms}}={\frac {2\pi fNaB_{\text{peak}}}{\sqrt {2}}}\approx 4.44fNaB_{\text{peak}}}$ 

If the flux does not contain even harmonicsthe following equation can be used for half-cycle average voltage E_avg of any waveshape:

${\displaystyle E_{\text{avg}}=4fNaB_{\text{peak}}\!}$ 

Basic transformer parameters and constructionEdit

PolarityEdit

A dot convention is often used in transformer circuit diagrams, nameplates or terminal markings to define the relative polarity of transformer windings. Positively increasing instantaneous current entering the primary winding's ‘dot’ end induces positive polarity voltage exiting the secondary winding's ‘dot’ end.^{[28][29][30][k][l][m]}

Three-phase transformers used in electric power systems will have a nameplate that indicate the phase relationships between their terminals. This may be in the form of a phasordiagram, or using an alpha-numeric code to show the type of internal connection (wye or delta) for each winding.

Effect of frequencyEdit

The EMF of a transformer at a given flux increases with frequency.^[17] By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same impedance. However, properties such as core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with frequency. Aircraft and military equipment employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding weight.^[34] Conversely, frequencies used for some railway electrification systems were much lower (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal utility frequencies (50–60 Hz) for historical reasons concerned mainly with the limitations of earlyelectric traction motors. Consequently, the transformers used to step-down the high overhead line voltages (e.g. 15 kV) were much larger and heavier for the same power rating than those required for the higher frequencies.

 

Power transformer over-excitation condition caused by decreased frequency; flux (green), iron core's magnetic characteristics (red) and magnetizing current (blue).

Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current. At a lower frequency, the magnetizing current will increase. Operation of a large transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. For example, transformers may need to be equipped with 'volts per hertz' over-excitation, ANSI function 24, relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency.

One example is in traction transformers used for electric multiple unit and high-speed train service operating across regions with different electrical standards.^[35] The converter equipment and traction transformers have to accommodate different input frequencies and voltage (ranging from as high as 50 Hz down to 16.7 Hz and rated up to 25 kV) while being suitable for multiple AC asynchronous motor and DC converters and motors with varying harmonics mitigation filtering requirements.

At much higher frequencies the transformer core size required drops dramatically: a physically small and cheap transformer can handle power levels that would require a massive iron core at mains frequency. The development of switching power semiconductor devices and complex integrated circuits made switch-mode power supplies viable, to generate a high frequency from a much lower one (or DC), change the voltage level with a small transformer, and, if necessary, rectify the changed voltage.

Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to transient voltages with high-frequency components, such as caused in switching or by lightning.^[36]

Energy lossesEdit

Transformer energy losses are dominated by winding and core losses. Transformers' efficiency tends to improve with increasing transformer capacity. The efficiency of typical distribution transformers is between about 98 and 99 percent.^[37][38][n]

As transformer losses vary with load, it is often useful to tabulate no-load loss, full-load loss, half-load loss, and so on. Hysteresis andeddy current losses are constant at all load levels and dominate overwhelmingly without load, while variable winding joule lossesdominating increasingly as load increases. The no-load loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply. Designing energy efficient transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon steel, or even amorphous steel for the core and thicker wire, increasing initial cost. The choice of construction represents a trade-off between initial cost and operating cost.^[40]

Transformer losses arise from:

Winding joule losses

Current flowing through a winding's conductor causes joule heating. As frequency increases, skin effect andproximity effect causes the winding's resistance and, hence, losses to increase.

Core losses

Hysteresis losses

Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due tohysteresis within the core. According to Steinmetz's formula, the heat energy due to hysteresis is given by

${\displaystyle W_{\text{h}}\approx \eta \beta _{\text{max}}^{1.6}}$ , and,

hysteresis loss is thus given by

${\displaystyle P_{\text{h}}\approx {W}_{\text{h}}f\approx \eta {f}\beta _{\text{max}}^{1.6}}$ 

where, f is the frequency, η is the hysteresis coefficient and β_max is the maximum flux density, the empirical exponent of which varies from about 1.4 to 1.8 but is often given as 1.6 for iron.^[40][41][42]

Eddy current losses

Eddy currents are produced in the metal transformer core and cause heating of the core. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness.^[40] Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of plates electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block; all transformers operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar cores.

Magnetostriction related transformer hum

Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction, the frictional energy of which produces an audible noise known asmains hum or transformer hum.^[12][43] This transformer hum is especially objectionable in transformers supplied at power frequencies^[o] and in high-frequency flyback transformers associated with televisionCRTs.

Stray losses

Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.^[44]

There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small.

 

Core form = core type; shell form = shell type

Mechanical vibration and audible noise transmission

In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings. This energy incites vibration transmission in interconnected metalwork, thus amplifying audibletransformer hum.^[45]

ConstructionEdit

CoresEdit

Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'. When windings surround the core, the transformer is core form; when windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form.^[46][47][48]Shell form design may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding coils.^[46]Core form design tends to, as a general rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form design for high voltage power transformer applications at the lower end of their voltage and power rating ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent.^{[46][49][50][51]} Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra-high voltage and higher MVA applications because, though more labor-intensive to manufacture, shell form transformers are characterized as having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio, better short-circuit strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage.^[51]

Laminated steel coresEdit

 

Laminated core transformer showing edge of laminations at top of photo

 

Power transformer inrush current caused by residual flux at switching instant; flux (green), iron core's magnetic characteristics (red) and magnetizing current (blue).

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high permeability silicon steel.^[52] The steel has a permeability many times that of free spaceand the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings.^[53]Early transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires.^[54] Later designs constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of insulation.^[55] Thetransformer universal EMF equation implies an acceptably large core cross-sectional area in order to avoid saturation.^[17][27][p]

The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce losses,^[52] but are more laborious and expensive to construct.^[56]Thin laminations are generally used on high-frequency transformers, with some of very thin steel laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz.

 

Laminating the core greatly reduces eddy-current losses

One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of E-shapedsteel sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading to its name of 'E-I transformer'.^[56]Such a design tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical to manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is made by winding a steel strip around a rectangular form and then bonding the layers together. It is then cut in two, forming two C shapes, and the core assembled by binding the two C halves together with a steel strap.^[56] They have the advantage that the flux is always oriented parallel to the metal grains, reducing reluctance.

A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a high inrush currentuntil the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced, usually after a few cycles of the applied AC waveform.^[57] Overcurrent protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass. On transformers connected to long, overhead power transmission lines, induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbancesduring solar storms can cause saturation of the core and operation of transformer protection devices.^[58]

Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made with low-loss high-permeability silicon steel oramorphous (non-crystalline) metal alloy. The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the transformer by its lower losses at light load.^[59]

Solid coresEdit

Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch-mode power supplies that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk electrical resistivity. For frequencies extending beyond the VHF band, cores made from non-conductive magnetic ceramicmaterials called ferrites are common.^[56]Some radio-frequency transformers also have movable cores (sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radio-frequency circuits.

Toroidal coresEdit

 

Small toroidal core transformer

Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which, depending on operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon steel or permalloy wound into a coil, powdered iron, or ferrite.^[60][61] A strip construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned, improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance. The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an E-I core.^[20] The cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular, but more expensive cores with circular cross-sections are also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core. This minimizes the length of wire needed and provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from generatingelectromagnetic interference.

Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I types for a similar power level. Other advantages compared to E-I types, include smaller size (about half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum (making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low off-load losses (making them more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt mounting, and greater choice of shapes. The main disadvantages are higher cost and limited power capacity (see Classification parameters below). Because of the lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path, toroidal transformers also tend to exhibit higher inrush current, compared to laminated E-I types.

Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight of inductive components. A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the higher labor cost of winding. This is because it is necessary to pass the entire length of a coil winding through the core aperture each time a single turn is added to the coil. As a consequence, toroidal transformers rated more than a few kVA are uncommon. Relatively few toroids are offered with power ratings above 10 kVA, and practically none above 25 kVA. Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings.^[62]

Air coresEdit

A physical core is not an absolute requisite and a functioning transformer can be produced simply by placing the windings near each other, an arrangement termed an "air-core" transformer. The air which comprises the magnetic circuit is essentially lossless, and so an air-core transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material.^[11] The magetizing inductance is drastically reduced by the lack of a magnetic core, resulting in large magnetizing currents and losses if used at low frequencies. A large number of turns can be used to increase magnetizing inductance, but doing so increases winding resistance and leakage inductance. Air-core transformers are unsuitable for use in power distribution.^[11] They have however very high frequency capability, and are frequently employed in radio-frequency applications,^[63]for which a satisfactory coupling coefficient is maintained by carefully overlapping the primary and secondary windings. Air cores are also used for resonant transformers such as Tesla coils, where they can achieve reasonably low loss despite the low magnetizing inductance.

WindingsEdit

 

Windings are usually arranged concentrically to minimize flux leakage.

 

Cut view through transformer windings.

High-frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz often have windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize the skin-effect and proximity effect losses.^[64] Large power transformers use multiple-stranded conductors as well, since even at low power frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in high-current windings.^[65] Each strand is individually insulated, and the strands are arranged so that at certain points in the winding, or throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies different relative positions in the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size, aiding manufacture.^[65]

The windings of signal transformers minimize leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve high-frequency response. Coils are split into sections, and those sections interleaved between the sections of the other winding.

Power-frequency transformers may have tapsat intermediate points on the winding, usually on the higher voltage winding side, for voltage adjustment. Taps may be manually reconnected, or a manual or automatic switch may be provided for changing taps. Automatic on-load tap changers are used in electric power transmission or distribution, on equipment such as arc furnace transformers, or for automatic voltage regulators for sensitive loads. Audio-frequency transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A center-tapped transformer is often used in the output stage of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit. Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar.

Dry-type transformer winding insulation systems can be either of standard open-wound 'dip-and-bake' construction or of higher quality designs that include vacuum pressure impregnation (VPI), vacuum pressure encapsulation (VPE), and cast coil encapsulation processes.^[66] In the VPI process, a combination of heat, vacuum and pressure is used to thoroughly seal, bind, and eliminate entrained air voids in the winding polyester resin insulation coat layer, thus increasing resistance to corona. VPE windings are similar to VPI windings but provide more protection against environmental effects, such as from water, dirt or corrosive ambients, by multiple dips including typically in terms of final epoxy coat.^[67]

Regarding image at top captioned, Cut view of transformer windings:

The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the application, but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout every turn.^[68] For small power and signal transformers, in which currents are low and the potential difference between adjacent turns is small, the coils are often wound from enamelled magnet wire, such asFormvar wire. Larger power transformers operating at high voltages may be wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil-impregnated paper and blocks of pressboard.^[65]

Legend

White: Air, liquid or other insulating medium in conjunction with varnish, paper or other coil insulation.

Green spiral: Grain oriented silicon steel.

Black: Primary winding (Aluminum or copper).

Red: Secondary winding (Aluminum or copper).

CoolingEdit

 

Cutaway view of liquid-immersed construction transformer. The conservator (reservoir) at top provides liquid-to-atmosphere isolation as coolant level and temperature changes. The walls and fins provide required heat dissipation balance.

It is a rule of thumb that the life expectancy of electrical insulation is halved for about every 7 °C to 10 °C increase in operating temperature (an instance of the application of the Arrhenius equation).^{[69][70][71][q]}

Small dry-type and liquid-immersed transformers are often self-cooled by natural convection and radiation heat dissipation.^[72][73] As power ratings increase, transformers are often cooled by forced-air cooling, forced-oil cooling, water-cooling, or combinations of these.^[74] Large transformers are filled with transformer oil that both cools and insulates the windings.^[75] Transformer oil is a highly refined mineral oil that cools the windings and insulation by circulating within the transformer tank. The mineral oil andpaper insulation system has been extensively studied and used for more than 100 years. It is estimated that 50% of power transformers will survive 50 years of use, that the average age of failure of power transformers is about 10 to 15 years, and that about 30% of power transformer failures are due to insulation and overloading failures.^[76][77] Prolonged operation at elevated temperature degrades insulating properties of winding insulation and dielectric coolant, which not only shortens transformer life but can ultimately lead to catastrophic transformer failure.^[69] With a great body of empirical study as a guide,transformer oil testing including dissolved gas analysis provides valuable maintenance information. This underlines the need to monitor, model, forecast and manage oil and winding conductor insulation temperature conditions under varying, possibly difficult, power loading conditions.^[78][79]

Building regulations in many jurisdictions require indoor liquid-filled transformers to either use dielectric fluids that are less flammable than oil, or be installed in fire-resistant rooms.^[37] Air-cooled dry transformers can be more economical where they eliminate the cost of a fire-resistant transformer room.

The tank of liquid filled transformers often has radiators through which the liquid coolant circulates by natural convection or fins. Some large transformers employ electric fans for forced-air cooling, pumps for forced-liquid cooling, or have heat exchangers for water-cooling.^[75] An oil-immersed transformer may be equipped with a Buchholz relay, which, depending on severity of gas accumulation due to internal arcing, is used to either alarm or de-energize the transformer.^[57] Oil-immersed transformer installations usually include fire protection measures such as walls, oil containment, and fire-suppression sprinkler systems.

Polychlorinated biphenyls have properties that once favored their use as a dielectric coolant, though concerns over their environmental persistence led to a widespread ban on their use.^[80] Today, non-toxic, stable silicone-based oils, or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used where the expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault.^[37][81] PCBs for new equipment were banned in 1981 and in 2000 for use in existing equipment in United Kingdom^[82] Legislation enacted in Canada between 1977 and 1985 essentially bans PCB use in transformers manufactured in or imported into the country after 1980, the maximum allowable level of PCB contamination in existing mineral oil transformers being 50 ppm.^[83]

Some transformers, instead of being liquid-filled, have their windings enclosed in sealed, pressurized tanks and cooled by nitrogen orsulfur hexafluoride gas.^[81]

Experimental power transformers in the 500‐to‐1,000 kVA range have been built with liquid nitrogen or helium cooled superconductingwindings, which eliminates winding losses without affecting core losses.^[84][85]

Insulation dryingEdit

Construction of oil-filled transformers requires that the insulation covering the windings be thoroughly dried of residual moisture before the oil is introduced. Drying is carried out at the factory, and may also be required as a field service. Drying may be done by circulating hot air around the core, by circulating externally heated transformer oil, or by vapor-phase drying (VPD) where an evaporated solvent transfers heat by condensation on the coil and core. The VPD process most often uses kerosene as the heat exchanging fluid. In addition to decreasing the moisture content in the insulation, the kerosene acts as a cleaning solvent which takes out any dust and dirt from the insulation surfaces. Compared to a conventional hot air drying process, the vapor-phase drying process decreases the drying time by 40% to 50%.^[86][87]

For small transformers, resistance heating by injection of current into the windings is used. The heating can be controlled very well, and it is energy efficient. The method is called low-frequency heating (LFH) since the current used is at a much lower frequency than that of the power grid, which is normally 50 or 60 Hz. A lower frequency reduces the effect of inductance, so the voltage required can be reduced.^[88] The LFH drying method is also used for service of older transformers.^[89]

BushingsEdit

Larger transformers are provided with high-voltage insulated bushings made of polymers or porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide careful control of the electric field gradientwithout letting the transformer leak oil.^[90]

Classification parametersEdit

Transformers can be classified in many ways, such as the following:

• Power capacity: From a fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand MVA.
• Duty of a transformer: Continuous, short-time, intermittent, periodic, varying.
• Frequency range: Power-frequency, audio-frequency, or radio-frequency.
• Voltage class: From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts.
• Cooling type: Dry and liquid-immersed – self-cooled, forced air-cooled; liquid-immersed – forced oil-cooled, water-cooled.
• Circuit application: Such as power supply, impedance matching, output voltage and current stabilizer or circuit isolation.
• Utilization: Pulse, power, distribution,rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output, etc..
• Basic magnetic form: Core form, shell form, concentric, sandwich.
• Constant-potential transformer descriptor:Step-up, step-down, isolation.
• General winding configuration: By EIC vector group – various possible two-winding combinations of the phase designationsdelta, wye or star, and zigzag or interconnected star;^[r] other –autotransformer, Scott-T, zigzag grounding transformer winding.^{[91][92][93][94]}
• Rectifier phase-shift winding configuration: 2-winding, 6-pulse; 3-winding, 12-pulse; . . . n-winding, [n-1]*6-pulse; polygon; etc..

TypesEdit

Various specific electrical application designs require a variety of transformer types. Although they all share the basic characteristic transformer principles, they are customized in construction or electrical properties for certain installation requirements or circuit conditions.

• Autotransformer: Transformer in which part of the winding is common to both primary and secondary circuits, leading to increased efficiency, smaller size, and a higher degree of voltage regulation.^[95][96]
• Capacitor voltage transformer: Transformer in which capacitor divider is used to reduce high voltage before application to the primary winding.
• Distribution transformer, power transformer: International standards make a distinction in terms of distribution transformers being used to distribute energy from transmission lines and networks for local consumption and power transformers being used to transfer electric energy between the generator and distribution primary circuits.^[95][97][s]
• Phase angle regulating transformer: A specialised transformer used to control the flow of real power on three-phase electricity transmission networks.
• Scott-T transformer: Transformer used for phase transformation from three-phase totwo-phase and vice versa.^[95]
• Polyphase transformer: Any transformer with more than one phase.
• Grounding transformer: Transformer used for grounding three-phase circuits to create a neutral in a three wire system, using a wye-delta transformer,^[92][98] or more commonly, a zigzag grounding winding.^[92][94][95]
• Leakage transformer: Transformer that has loosely coupled windings.
• Resonant transformer: Transformer that uses resonance to generate a high secondary voltage.
• Audio transformer: Transformer used in audio equipment.
• Output transformer: Transformer used to match the output of a valve amplifier to its load.
• Instrument transformer: Potential or current transformer used to accurately and safely represent voltage, current or phase position of high voltage or high power circuits.^[95]
• Pulse transformer: Specialized small-signal transformer used to transmit digital signaling while providing electrical isolation, commonly used in Ethernet computer networks as 10BASE-T, 100BASE-T and 1000BASE-T.

 

An electrical substation inMelbourne, Australia showing three of five 220 kV – 66 kV transformers, each with a capacity of 150 MVA^[99]

ApplicationsEdit

 

Transformer at the Limestone Generating Station in Manitoba,Canada

Since the high voltages carried in the wires are significantly greater than what is needed in-home, transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to decrease (or step-down) the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain.^[100] The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage. Transformers are used to increase (or step-up) voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires. Wires haveresistance which loses energy through joule heating at a rate corresponding to square of the current. By transforming power to a higher voltage transformers enable economical transmission of power and distribution. Consequently, transformers have shaped theelectricity supply industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand.^[101] All but a tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer.^[44]

Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a single pair of wires. A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced voltages to ground, such as between external cables and internal circuits. Transformers made to medical grade standards isolate the users from the direct current. These are found commonly used in conjunction with hospital beds, dentist chairs, and other medical lab equipment.^[96]

Schematic of a large oil filled power transformer - See Note 't' for numbered-balloon item description.^[t]